Some basic rules of differential calculus are useful for understanding economic discourse, such as discussions in business or financial media about U.S. economic performance.

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The IRS has recently asserted implicit support in several situations where a foreign based affiliate extended an intercompany loan to a US borrowing affiliate. In this piece, we'll discuss an intercompany loan involving Perrigo, and compare the IRS settlement to the litigation involving GE Capital Canada before we turn to another potential IRS issue.

Topics: US Internal Revenue Service Intercompany Guarantee Fees Intercompany Loans Intercompany Financing US Transfer Pricing Canada Revenue Agency

Microeconomics are detached from the reality of corporate profits behavior. Here, I explore the operating profits (before depreciation and amortization) of a major group of U.S. corporations (consolidated entities) that make up a large fraction of U.S. gross domestic product.

Topics: Profit Indicators Corporate Profits Oligopoly US Transfer Pricing

The operating profit margin (OMBD or OMAD) can be derived from the profit markup by indirect least squares (ILS). This is the most theoretically defensible and reliable operating profit indicator that can be obtained from comparable data.

Topics: Transfer Pricing TNMM/CPM Operating Profit Markup Profit Indicators

U.S. 26 CFR 1.482-5(b)(4)(i-ii) claim that the “return on capital employed” (return on assets) is less sensitive to “functional differences” than the operating profit margin or the operating profit markup. This claim is based on the unrealistic premise that “capital flows” to equalize profit rates (return on assets) among companies in the same (or in different) industries by some "invisible hand."

Topics: Return on Assets TNMM/CPM Profit Indicators

Data suggest that “big oil” forms an oligopoly industry. Noise about oil and gas prices being determined by supply and demand is suspect.

Topics: Oil and Gas Transfer Pricing Profit Indicators US Transfer Pricing

Quartiles are the most elementary form of univariate (single variable) data summary, because no statistical technique beyond sorting and slicing (tagging) of the data is employed. Distributions of profit indicators have long tails, suggesting that the Median is a good measure for only 50% of the dataset.

Topics: Arm's Length Principle TNMM/CPM

Determining arm's length remuneration for a Czech manufacturing affiliate under different transfer pricing models.

Topics: Return on Assets Contract Manufacturer Royalty Rates Tax Controversy TNMM/CPM

Determining an arm’s length profit indicator (profit ratio) requires two equations, and not one equation, as prescribed in financial statement analysis textbooks. E.g., Bernstein (1993), Drake & Fabozzi (2012). An accounting critique of univariate profit ratios is found in Whittington (1986).

Topics: TNMM/CPM Profit Indicators

Panama’s Administrative Tax Court ruled in favor of the tax authority Dirección General de Ingresos (DGI) in a January 19, 2023 decision involving remuneration for a related-party wholesale distributor of electronics determined using Transactional Net Margin Method (TMMM; CPM in the US). In earlier discussions, we noted how DGI benchmarked the return for a limited-function wholesale distributor of petroleum and the return for a high-function distributor of pharmaceuticals.

Topics: Limited Risk Distributor Asset Intensity Adjustment TNMM/CPM

This litigation raised an oft-seen issue as to the correct definition of “sales” for transfer pricing approaches that rely on the Comparable Uncontrolled Transaction (Price) method.

Topics: Intangibles Comparable Uncontrolled Transaction (Price) Method Portugal Royalty Base Royalty Rates

On February 20, 2023 Ampol Limited settled its procurement hub transfer pricing dispute with the Australian Tax Office (ATO). Procurement affiliates have been a point of emphasis for the ATO in recent years, and have been gaining the attention of other tax authorities, including the US IRS.

Topics: Australia Australian Tax Office Singapore Procurement Hub Tax Controversy TNMM/CPM

A 2008 restructuring transferred the European rights to the McDonald’s intangibles to McD Europe Franchising Sàrl, a Luxembourg-resident subsidiary with branches in both Switzerland and the U.S. While this migration of intangible assets created substantial controversy in Europe, the real transfer pricing concern would be an IRS issue and not an issue for the French Tax Authority (FTA) if the royalty rate remained at 5%.

Topics: Intangibles Europe Best Method Royalty Rates Tax Controversy TNMM/CPM

EdgarStat® contains an internal regression model to calculate the beta-risk coefficient of an individual enterprise stock price return compared to the return of the S&P 500 stock price (market) index. This stock price return regression model is known as CAPM.

Topics: Tutorial Valuation CAPM

The tax authorities in China and in South Korea have issued different safe harbors with respect to the interest rates on intercompany loans. Safe harbor rates are often in conflict with what would represent an arm’s length rate. Our discussion poses a hypothetical intercompany loan from a South Korean parent corporation to its Chinese manufacturing affiliate to highlight how the arm’s length interest rate depends on the contractual terms of the loans including date, term, and currency and the credit rating of the borrowing affiliate.

Topics: Credit Rating Interest Rates Arm's Length Interest Rates Intercompany Financing

The Israel Tax Authority prevailed in Israel vs CA Software Israel Ltd (October 2022, Tel Aviv District Court, Case No 61226-06-17), which involved the valuation of transferred software. While the taxpayer’s experts tried to justify the lower valuation arguing that the economic useful life of the transferred intangibles was very short.

Topics: Discounted Cash Flow Intangibles Valuation of Intangibles Tax Controversy

There are several approaches to accounting for ongoing marketing expenses necessary to maintain a brand in a discounted cash flow valuation.

Topics: Intangibles France Valuation of Intangibles

The Dutch tax authority prevailed in its challenge of several British American Tobacco intercompany financing transactions.

Topics: Arm's Length Interest Rates Intercompany Guarantee Fees Intercompany Loans Intercompany Financing

Transfer pricing practitioners in the US as well as in other nations often face the dilemma that clients wish to establish intercompany management fees as a percentage of revenues while tax authorities may test the implied cost plus from any intercompany management policy.

Topics: Intercompany Services Management Fees CUP State Transfer Pricing TNMM/CPM

Licensees bear significant commercial risk when they use valuable intangible assets owned by another entity. As such, any method that affords them with an expected return to its tangible assets that is only as high as the overall enterprise’s cost of capital is inconsistent with sound economics.

Topics: Intangibles Medtronic Royalty Rates Tax Controversy Section 482 TNMM/CPM US Transfer Pricing

Harold McClure expounds on the issue of currency denomination in intercompany financing, addressing currency adjustments in longer-term fixed interest rates, past controversies, and regulatory guidance.

Topics: Financial Transactions OECD United Nations Adjustments Arm's Length Interest Rates Intercompany Financing

This discussion presents a simplified illustration of the issues with respect to the unspecified method applied in Medtronic III in contrast to the IRS' extreme CPM approach and a traditional RPSM approach based on sound financial economics.

Topics: Residual Profit Split Method Unspecified Method Intangibles Tax Policy Medtronic Tax Controversy Section 482 US Internal Revenue Service TNMM/CPM US Transfer Pricing

Italy’s Supreme Court remanded May 17, 2022 a case in which Regional Tax Commission of Lombardy challenged the transfer pricing between Promgas Spa and Gazprom Export, finding alleged deficiency in the tax authority’s application of the Transactional Net Margin Method (TNMM).

Topics: Resale Price Method CUP Oil and Gas Transfer Pricing TNMM/CPM

In this tutorial, we address comparability adjustments for differences in the currency of the tested loan to that of the comparable transactions.

Topics: Tutorial CUFT Interest Rates Financial Transactions Intercompany Financing

A discussion of the possible issues in the recently settled transfer pricing dispute between Western Digital Corp. and the United States IRS.

Topics: Intangibles United States Asia-Pacific Transfer Pricing

One of the most challenging transfer pricing issues regarding financial transactions is making a comparability adjustment for differences in country risk between the tested non-US borrower’s country and the comparable US borrower's country in pricing the intercompany loan interest rate.

Topics: CUFT State Transfer Pricing Adjustments Arm's Length Interest Rates Intercompany Financing

Use of the CPM/TNMM to determine royalty rates for valuable intangibles in transfer pricing is incompatible with basic financial economics.

Topics: DEMPE OECD Guidelines Intangibles Tax Policy Royalty Rates US Internal Revenue Service TNMM/CPM

Regression analysis yields more reliable profit indicators than the linear equation without intercept specified in US and OECD transfer pricing guidelines.

Topics: Tax Controversy Transfer Pricing Profit Indicators

There are often legitimate concerns with using book value versus market value of assets in applying a Return on Assets approach in transfer pricing. While employing a Return on Costs approach may be a reliable alternative, it must also account for comparability differences in asset intensity.

Topics: Financial Economics Benchmarking CAPM Asset Intensity Adjustment Return on Assets Contract Manufacturer

In this tutorial we introduce you to a tool in the EdgarStat CUFT Loan Agreements Database for estimating the implied credit rating of your tested borrower using the Altman Z”-Score Model.

Topics: Credit Rating CUFT Intercompany Financing

To determine whether the usual financial ratios provide insights into what would represent an arm's length range, any analysis of controlled healthcare distributors must account for the underlying facts surrounding the functions and expenses occurred by the distribution affiliate.

Topics: Pharmaceutical Industry Benchmarking Resale Price Method Tax Controversy TNMM/CPM

Intercompany financing is a growing area of focus in transfer pricing. CUFT Analytics co-founder and managing director John Hollas provides guidance on using the EdgarStat CUFT Loan Agreements Database to benchmark an arm's length range of interest rates.

Topics: CUFT Credit Risk Arm's Length Interest Rates Intercompany Financing

Interests fluctuate based on market conditions, and analysts must consider whether the market conditions surrounding their data are comparable to those of the tested intercompany transaction when benchmarking an arm's length interest rate in transfer pricing.

Topics: CUFT Interest Rates Intercompany Financing

Dr. Ednaldo Silva illustrates why asset intensity adjustments to the Return on Assets profit indicator are redundant and unviable.

Topics: Asset Intensity Adjustment Return on Assets Profit Indicators

Applied properly, the Comparable Profits Method (CPM) can be a useful approach for well-defined transfer pricing issues, such as the appropriate profitability of a sales affiliate. Unfortunately, CPM is often applied mechanically without regard for economic principles and functional comparability.

Topics: Benchmarking Tax Policy State Transfer Pricing TNMM/CPM Profit Indicators

Brazil’s unique transfer pricing rules have allowed multinationals to shift income to tax havens in certain situations. We explore through the lens of the Macopolo case how Brazil could benefit from adoption of the arm's length standard.

Topics: Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Brazil OECD Guidelines Tax Policy Tax Controversy TNMM/CPM

Harold McClure explores intercompany financing issues through the lens of a recent case before the EU General Court and an upcoming battle between Perrigo and the IRS.

Topics: Interest Rates United States Europe Intercompany Financing

International tax law firms are rightfully warning clients of audit risks with respect to intercompany financing in France. Taxpayers can mitigate risk by following new OECD guidance, providing sound economic analysis and avoiding overly aggressive positions on group vs. standalone credit ratings.

Topics: Interest Rates United States France Intercompany Financing

In February 2021, the Supreme Court of Canada declined to hear the Canadian Revenue Agency's (CRA) appeal in its case against uranium multinational Cameco Corporation. However, this only marked the end of Round 1, as the courts only ruled on 8 of 14 years under review.

Topics: Mining and Extractives Canadian Revenue Agency Tax Controversy TNMM/CPM Profit Indicators

The Israel Tax Authority is questioning whether costs plus markup models Israeli R&D affiliates are at arm's length. This could present issues for multinationals that have not been giving proper consideration to cost base, asset intensity and ownership of valuable intangibles in their benchmarking.

Topics: DEMPE Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Benchmarking Intangibles Tax Policy

Notwithstanding its acceptance in Coca Cola Co. v. Commissioner of the IRS, Return on Assets is a controversial profit indicator to use in transfer pricing. At the very least it must be subject to economic analysis to corroborate a relationship between operating profit and operating assets.

Topics: Tutorial Return on Assets Tax Controversy Profit Indicators

A recent article asserted that state tax authorities should use the Comparable Profits Method (CPM) with care in the evaluation of transfer pricing for tangible goods. However, some of the examples cited, including the recent Coca Cola case, in their piece are misplaced for reasons we will address.

Topics: Tax Policy State Transfer Pricing Tax Controversy TNMM/CPM

Selecting alleged comparable companies with different functions than the tested party is known to open Pandora's Box in transfer pricing controversy, and is often exacerbated by a failure to adjust for material differences between the tested party and the selected comparables.

Topics: Comparability Limited Risk Distributor Tax Controversy Profit Indicators

Ad hoc adjustments are a risky endeavor in transfer pricing. Using regression analysis, we can test if asset intensity is relevant to explain the behavior of the operating profit markup or profit margin and calculate a reliable adjustment to the profit indicator.

Topics: Tutorial Asset Intensity Adjustment TNMM/CPM Profit Indicators

The prevalent use of quartiles to determine profit indicators often results in a wide (unreliable range) and ad hoc assets adjustments. These problems can be solved by using regression analysis, which produces more defensible statistical ranges of the profit indicator resistant to audit scrutiny.

Topics: Tutorial TNMM/CPM Profit Indicators

Changes to tax laws are often seen as the primary solution to curb profit shifting. However, proper application of the arm's length principle alongside BEPS CbCR disclosures already offer powerful tools in this endeavor.

Topics: Pharmaceutical Industry Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Tax Policy TNMM/CPM

Comparability is a key issue in transfer pricing that is often not fully appreciated. However, comparability issues are hardly uncommon in transfer pricing controversies and can create a trickle-down effect that leads to major taxation issues.

Topics: Comparability Limited Risk Distributor TNMM/CPM Profit Indicators